The Botswana Experience

Gaborone

Often described as Africa's fastest growing city, Botswana's capital Gaborone is a vibrant and colourful city, which lies in the flat valley between Kgale and Oodi hills, on the Notwane River in the south eastern corner of Botswana, 15km from the South African border post at Tlokweng.

In 1998 Gaborone had an estimated population of 192,000 inhabitants. As the capital city, Gaborone is the seat of government as well as the country's commercial and administrative heart.

The city is named after Kgosi (Chief) Gaborone who led the Batlokwa tribe into the area in the 1880s. They settled in Tlokweng, the first urban area you reach when driving into the city from the South African border post 10km to the east. In the early 1890s a colonial fort was built in an area now known as The Village near Tlokweng, and its ruins can still be seen near the Village Cinema.

As plans developed for Bechuanaland's independence, the need to establish an administrative town within the boundaries of the country was recognized. Bechuanaland was the only territory in the world whose administrative centre, Mafikeng, lay outside its boundaries. Nine possible sites had been suggested: Mahalapye, Shashe, Francistown, Serowe, Artesia, Lobatse, Gaborone, Maun and a point within the Tuli Block.

Gaborone was chosen because of its strategic location, its proximity to the railway line and Pretoria, its already established administrative offices, its accessibility to most of the major tribes, its non-association with any particular tribe, and, most importantly, its closeness to a major water source.

In three short years, the new capital emerged from the African bush. By the time it was completed, it boasted Assembly buildings, Government office blocks, a power station, a hospital, schools, a radio station, a telephone exchange, police stations, a post office, banks, shops, a church, a hotel, a brewery, a stadium grandstand and more than 1,000 houses. The basic infrastructure was in place for Independence Day on 30 September 1966, when Bechuanaland became the eleventh British dependency in Africa to become independent.

Today it is a very different story, and Gaborone is a bustling modern city, and the seat of power for one of Africa's most successful economies, which once again is being viewed with envy by almost all her neighbours.

There are numerous busy shopping malls offering full range of imported and locally produced goods, excellent restaurants, top international quality hotels, sports clubs and various night clubs. New buildings and suburbs sprout like mushrooms wherever there's a block of land to fit them, resulting in a mix of low-cost housing, blocks of flats, shopping centres and industrial complexes.

Government ministries, the National Assembly, the House of Chiefs and the Archives are all grouped in the Government Enclave. The University of Botswana, the National Museum and Art Gallery, as well as the stadium and a golf course are also located here.

In late 1998 a couple of private commercial radio stations, Yarona FM and GabzFM were established in Gaborone, and in conjunction with the government's RB2 radio station, have provided a great forum for the expansion and development of local musical talent, which at last is seeing steady growth.

On the August 30th, 2000 the first national television service called Botswana Television (BTV) was launched. With the headquarters in Gaborone, it is the first station in Africa to fully utilize digital technology. The signal of BTV is also carried on a PAS7 satellite with a footprint that covers the majority of the continent.

Botswana International Trade Fair held in the city is an annual event. Football matches and cultural gatherings are frequent occurrences at the National Stadium, while music and drama are performed at a number of venues, including Maitisong Cultural Centre.

Situated close to the capital, Sir Seretse Khama International Airport has modern facilities to cater for all wide-body aircraft and has recently installed state-of-the-art radar facilities aimed at enhancing the safety of flights in Botswana airspace.

Visitors to Gaborone now have an excellent choice of 'craft' shops to choose from. Botswana Craft, which specializes in crafts from Botswana, has several outlets in the city. The Camphill charity shop stocks good handmade wooden furniture and various other craft items such as local pottery and weavings. At Oodi weavers, 5km north of Phakalane, visitors can tour the weaving factory and shop, while in Broadhurst the Craft Workshop houses a range of very upmarket craft outlets which is becoming exceptionally popular with Gaborone's cappuccino drinking set.

For day trippers from Gaborone, just 5 or 6km north of Mochudi on the Francistown road lies 'Matsieng Footprints', one of Botswana's few 'Creation' archeological sites.

The Main Mall (The Mall)

The Main Mall is the starting point for your journey around Gaborone. This area was planned in 1963, in a preparation for the Independence and was to be the town centre, located between the Railway Station and the Army Garrison. Today it is the heart of Gaborone with shops, banks, business offices, as well as walkway with people selling crafts and other goods. At the eastern end of The Mall is the Civic Centre that also houses a public reference library. Opposite the Civic Centre is the Pula Arch, a landmark that commemorates the Independence of Botswana.

The National Assembly

The National Assembly is at the top of the Main Mall where it is surrounded by the other tall government buildings. At the centre of this government enclave is a paved square with a War Memorial in memory of the 300 Batswana who died fighting with the Allies against Fascism in the Second World War, 1939 to 1945. There is also a statue of Sir Seretse Khama, Botswana's first President.

National Sports Stadium, Golf Club, Cricket Club, Rugby Club, Tennis Association Courts

Some 2km south of the Main Mall the National Sports Stadium, the Gaborone Golf Club, the Cricket Club, the Rugby Club and the Botswana Tennis Association Courts are located. Tennis Association Courts hosted the international Davis Cup competition in 1997. There are numerous gymnasiums throughout the city and the main hotels all have good in-house gym and health club facilities. A second golf course has also recently been completed in Phakalane, and offers excellent club house facilities and a well-designed course set in landscaped woodland, edged with prime residential properties. See the map.

Kgale Hill

Kgale Hill dominates Gaborone on the western edge of the city. It offers a pleasant climb with breathtaking views of the Dam and city. Visitors can choose one of three well-defined routes up the hill: the steep Rusty's Route up the rocky face; the longer Transfeldt Trail up the back; and the undulating walk across the saddle to Cross Kopje. Each takes less than an hour. There is a resident troop of baboons living on Kgale and a pair of black eagles consistently nests in the craggy cliff-face just below the peak. There have also been reports of early morning sightings of leopard.

St. Claire Lion Park

While lions are the major attraction, the St Claire Lion Park has a great deal more to offer. Set in open woodland 14km from Gaborone on the Lobatse road, a variety of outdoor activities are offered for the family, making it a favourite haunt of the "Gaborone 4x4 Club" and a relaxing spot for weekend picnics and getaways. An entrance fee is charged, and facilities include a restaurant, bar, extensive children's playground, horse trails, motorbike rides, a vulture restaurant (where Otse's Cape vultures are fed), three dams, game viewing, picnic sites and the camping grounds. The park is open every day, but the bar and restaurant are closed on Mondays.

Other attractions include National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone Game Reserve, Mokolodi Game Reserve, Gaborone Dam, Thamaga Pottery, etc.

Kasane

Not too long ago Kasane was a remote and forgettable small village. However, its strategic location along the main tourist routes (meeting point of four countries - Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Namibia) has led to rapid expansion in recent years. Six kilometres east of Kasane is tiny Kazungula, which serves as the border post between Botswana and Zimbabwe and the landing for the Kazungula Ferry between Botswana and Zambia.

Situated on the Chobe River in the northeast, Kasane is a bustling little town offering trouble-free access to the Chobe National Park. As there are no boundary fences between the park and the village, game such as elephant and hippo can frequently be seen wandering down the road and through the Kasane campsites.

Kasane is the administrative centre of the Chobe District and the northern entrance to the Chobe National Park. There is one entrance into the Chobe National Park from Kasane: Sedudu gate which is south of the river.

A number of large dead trees along the Sedudu Valley Road are ideal for spotting elusive leopards, which are plentiful in the area.

Kasane also offers access to two other tourist sights: Nambia's Caprivi Strip to the west and the Victoria Falls to the east on the Zimbabwe/Zambian border.

There are a number of garages, banks, shops and river lodges in the village, as well as an international airport just 4km out of town. The lodges offer morning and evening drives into the park as far as Serondela.

Kasane also boasts an old and dignified baobab tree with its own story to tell: in the early twentieth century the hollowed out centre of the tree trunk served as the local prison for many years before the current brick structure behind it was built.

A short drive out of Kasane takes you to a bend in the Chobe River near the Kasane Rapids. A number of picnic sites can be found in the area, that are worth a visit if only to glimpse the abundance of birdlife that can be seen close to the rapids. Look out for unusual species such as the African finfoot and the halfcollared kingfisher. Most of the lodges offer river cruises, which provide a good opportunity to view birds and animals alike from close quarters. Sunset over the Chobe River is arguably one of the most photographed in Africa.

Kasane is also popular as a fishing safari destination. A wide variety of fish species can be found in the waterways off Kasane including tigerfish and bream. Most of the lodges in the area cater for fishing safaris as well as boat and tackle hire.

Across the Chobe river from Kasane is the flat grassy plains of Sedudu Island, a grazing ground for elephant, hippo and buffalo.

Visitors to Kasane can also visit the Kasane Hot Springs natural mineral spa and Inchingo fishing camp, which is an excellent area for fishing. The Sedudu Island on the Chobe River is also a favorite site for game viewing and bird watching. While in Kasane make sure to participate in one of the regular sundowner river cruises, a trip on the rapids of the Chobe River and a visit to the old hollow baobab tree.

Lesoma Memorial Monument

At this spot in 1977 the brutality of the civil war in Rhodesia, spilled over into peace loving Botswana. The country lost its first 15 soldiers. The monument serves to remember this unfortunate incident.

Maun

Almost all tourists entering the Okavango do so through Maun, situated at the gateway to the Delta and Moremi Game Reserve. Maun is the tourism capital of Botswana and the administrative centre of Ngamiland. It is also the headquarters of countless safari and air-charter operations whose signs and offices dot almost every intersection, particularly towards the airport.

Since the town's establishment in 1915 as the tribal capital of the Batawana people, Maun has had a rough and ready reputation as a hard-living 'Wild West' town servicing the local cattle ranching and hunting operations. But with the growth of the tourism industry and the completion of the tar road from Nata in the early 1990s, Maun has developed rapidly, losing much of its old frontier town character. It is now home to over 30,000 people.

Regular supplies of almost everything can be bought in Maun, and the town boasts several good shopping centres, filling stations, a choice of hotels and lodges as well as car and four-wheel-drive vehicle hire. The Maun Airport, which was officially opened in 1996 after extensive renovations, is - if one counts the light aircraft charters to the various Delta camps - one of the busiest airports in Southern Africa.

The name Maun is derived from the San word "maung", which means "the place of short reeds". The village began in 1915 as the capital for the Tawana people. The capital was moved from Toteng after glorious victory over Ndebele King Lobengula.

This metropolis is now spread out along the wide banks of the timeless Thamalakane River where red lechwe can still be seen grazing next to local donkeys, goats and cattle.

As one crosses the new causeway across the Thamalakane River to the main commercial centre, the Best Western Riley's Hotel is set on the riverbank to the left of the main traffic circle. This fine hotel is a very popular stopover with tourists travelling into and out of the Delta, and has been an important landmark in the town since the 1920s when Charles 'Harry' de Beauvoir Riley first arrived here. In those days it was a gruelling 35-hour haul from Francistown to Maun and when the men (mostly professional hunters) arrived, all they wanted was something cold to drink and a place to relax. Seeing the opportunity, Harry set up a little bar that was the scene of many wild parties.

Other areas of interest in and around Maun include the small Maun Game Reserve which covers just 8km2 of woodland. It follows the Thamalakane riverbank upstream from the Best Western Riley's Hotel and includes the original "Place of Reeds" from which the town takes its name. The reserve is open every day and is traversed by numerous walking trails for which a small entrance fee is charged.

Tsodilo Hills

In the flat barren landscape of the western Kalahari, some 50km west of the village of Sepupa on the banks of Panhandle, the sheer quartzite cliff-faces of the four Tsodilo Hills rise majestically above the surrounding savannah. The four hills form a line and are referred to by the San people as "The Male" - the largest hill which reaches a height of 410 metres above the surrounding plain; "The Female" - a smaller hill, about 300m, but has an overall area of almost three times that of The Male; and the next in size of 40m is referred to as "The Child" and lies about 2km away from The Female. Beyond these three is a much smaller unnamed knoll, located 2.2km northwest of The Child, which legend has it was The Male Hill's first wife who was discarded when he met and married the taller Female Hill.

The enigmatic and spiritual quality of the hills was noted by the famous author Sir Laurens van der Post in his book "The Lost World of the Kalahari" (see usefull books and readings). It was here that Sir Laurens's cameras inexplicably jammed, his tape recorders ceased functioning and his party was attacked by swarms of bees three mornings running. When he learned from his guide that two of his party had disturbed the Tsodilo spirits by ignoring long-established protocol and killing a warthog and a steenbok while approaching the sacred hills, van der Post buried a note of apology beneath the panel of paintings that now bears his name and it was apparently accepted.

Tsodilo is a place of special significance to the San who have been living here for thousands of years. They believe the hills are a resting place for the spirits of the deceased and that their various gods live in caverns within the Female Hill, from where they rule the world. The most sacred place is near the top of the Male Hill; legend has it that the first spirit knelt here to pray after creating the world. This was when the rocks were still soft and the San believe you can still see the impression of his knees in the gray rock. It is believed that these gods will cause misfortune if anyone hunts or causes death near the hills. The Harnbukushu, who also live in the area, believe the hills are where God lowered man to earth.

Archaeological studies have revealed that this area has been occupied by humans for at least 100,000 years. There are paintings on all the hills that cover 9 km2 of rock in a 22 km2 area. The best sites are at the north end of the Female hill.

The fact that Tsodilo is totally removed from all other rock art sites in southern Africa adds to its aura of mystery and magic. The nearest known site is 250 km away. What is more, the paintings at Tsodilo are generally unlike others in the southern African region in both style and the incidence of certain images. Many are isolated figures and over half depict wild and domestic animals, particularly the eland. Some are scenes, but few seem to tell a story. Many are outlined schematic designs and geometrical patterns. It is almost certain that most were painted by the Bushmen.

One of the most common images at Tsodilo is of schematic men with erect penises. These paintings could represent the concepts of heat, energy, creation and growth and may be associated with the trance dance. This dance produces an altered state of consciousness in which, the Bushmen believe, the dancer can heal the sick and control the natural and supernatural. The paintings depicting a mythological snake may corroborate this, as snakes in Bushman and Bantu mythology are associated with rain.

The schematic patterns may also have meanings - perhaps to do with creating rain to bring health and prosperity to all living things. Even the painting sites chosen on the hills would seem to point to their spiritual and religious significance. Many are on high, inaccessible cliffs, with commanding views over the landscape. This could indicate an authority and control over the sky and earth, or protection for those living on earth. It would seem that little or nothing about the paintings was haphazard.

Archaeological research at the hills has recently challenged previously held ideas about human migrations to southern Africa.

Scientists have identified the shorelines of a small lake. Among the rare artifacts found there are some animal bone fish hooks dating back more than 20,000 years. Other archaeological discoveries include the location of mines among the hills. There is evidence that between AD 800 and 1,100 the people at Tsodilo were engaged in mining black hematite, and possibly mica, and trading it through the extensive trade networks of Africa.

The Tsodilo Hills is one of the most historically significant rock art sites in the world with 500 individual sites charting thousands of years of human habitation. There is a small San encampment nearby as well as a village near the Male Hill inhabited by the Hambukushu people. Guides are available at these settlements.

The track to Tsodilo Hills is extremely rough and suitable only for four-wheel-drive vehicles. The turning off the main Maun/Shakawe road is just south of Sepupa and is indicated with a National Museum signpost. There are no designated campsites in the area and camping is permitted anywhere, but again, be sure to treat Tsodilo with respect.

Gchwihaba (Drotsky's) Caves

Certainly one of the wildest and remotest of all tourist destinations in Botswana is the Gcwihaba Caves. These beautiful caves are situated 50km south east of Aha Hills and are set in the same undulating Kalahari dunes. There are two unspectacular low ridges of sand-covered rock at the entrance to the caves, but an enchanting spectacular curtain of stalactites is the first of many wonders inside this fascinating formation.

The caves are a labyrinth of linked passages and caverns, which exist on two levels, one raised several metres above the other.

The large bat population sometimes encountered inside is noisy, but totally harmless. The system of caves contains a maze of passages which lead to bizarre rock formations, flowstones of various beautiful and subtle colours, stalactites, inlets, hallways, apertures and "frozen" waterfalls.

These magnificent chambers and formations, stalagmites and stalactites which reach up to 10m in height or length, were all carved and formed by dripping water, which seeped through and dissolved dolomite rock. Although completely isolated this unspoilt area is worth exploring for a few days. It is necessary to be completely self-sufficient as the cave is very remote.

In the !Kung language, the name of this cavern system in the Gcwihaba Hills means "hyaena's hole".

The Gcwihaba Caverns were first brought to European attention in the mid-1930s when the !Kung showed them to Ghanzi farmer Martinus Drotsky, and for years they were known as Drotsky's Caves.

As with many caves, Gcwihaba has a legend of treasure; the fabulously wealthy founder of Ghanzi, Hendrik Matthys van Zyl, is said to have stashed a portion of his fortune here in the late 1800s.

How to get there

You must have a 4WD vehicle. Take the Toteng/Sehitwa road out of Maun. Continue on to Tsao. (Sehitwa to Sepopa is fully tarmac now). Just after Tsao (about 1.5 kilometres) there is a National Museum signpost reading "To Gcwihabe Caverns". Turn left here onto a sand track, which continues, for approximately 130 kilometres. Parts of the track will have deep sand and will be rough going.

You will pass through undulating wooded terrain, which seems to go on forever. Clock the 130 kilometres on your speedometre and you will eventually descend a slight slope, after which there is a second National Museum signpost indicating a left-hand turn. This continues for about 30 kilometres, following a dry riverbed, and leads up to the caves. If you get as far as Nxainxai, you have gone too far. Ask for directions to the caves at the village. As you get closer to the caves, you will see a kind of slope rising from the ground and two low ridges of sand covered with rock. This is the entrance to the caves.

Visiting the Caverns

Gcwihaba has two main entrances, 250m apart, but the route through is more circuitous and hence longer. People that are not familiar with the caves, should use the north entrance and main route, which is signposted and marked by strings inside. Visitors must carry several strong torches (and batteries), as well as emergency light sources such as matches and cigarette lighters.

The easiest passage through begins at the lower entrance, which is hidden halfway up the hill from the end of the road. After entering the large chamber, you'll proceed down an increasingly steep passageway. The only hairy bit is a short vertical climb down into a pit, then up the other side to a shelf, where there's a tight squeeze before you emerge in a large room.

The rest of the 1 km route traverses a series of rooms and passages with lots of enticing side passages leading into the blackness. Midway through watch for several species of bat. The most common is the large Commerson's leaf-nosed bat. As you approach the other entrance, you'll see light filtering in above a steep rubble slope. After passing through the cave, it's pleasant to climb to the hilltop and watch the sunset over the violet expanses of the Kalahari.

The caverns are utterly dry, but there are pleasant campsites beneath the thorn trees around the entrances. Around the upper entrance, beware of the networks of aardvark burrows; vehicles get bogged and walkers may find themselves face down or buried up to their knees in sand.

Solomon's Wall

Of all the strange geological features in Botswana, Solomon's Wall in the Tuli Block is one of the most remarkable. This stark basalt dyke once formed a steep-sided natural dam wall across the Motloutse River, and the two sides of this breached barrier still tower up to 30 m high, guarding each side of the narrow gorge.

The vertical sides of this ancient dyke are a constant 10 m wide, and they once held back a great lake behind what must once have been a wide and incredibly beautiful waterfall. Evidence of this lake can be found in the number of alluvial semi-precious stones including quartz and agate that can be found along the Motloutse's riverbed in this area.

A four-wheel drive is necessary to reach Solomon's Wall, but it is well worth visiting as there are often deep clear pools of cool water in the sandy riverbed and with ample shade from the fever trees which edge this natural beach, and it is a perfect picnic spot.

Baines Baobabs

Baines Baobabs were named after the famous painter and explorer of the last century Thomas Baines, who painted this unusual group of baobabs in 1862 during his journeys through Southern Africa. This remarkable cluster of trees, also known as Seven Sisters, has been immortalized by other painters as well, including Prince Charles.

Today, the scene that captivated Baines, inspiring him to record the formation on canvas, is little changed and still attracts the attention of visitors, although now the baobabs are recorded on film.

The seven giant trees dominate a small island on the edge of the open grassless Kudiakam Pan. They used to be an ideal picnic spot for visitors, but now that this area has been incorporated in the national park this is no longer permitted, and it will be years before the area recovers from the damage of uncontrolled camping.

Although the pan at Baines Baobabs is dry for most of the year, the area is transformed into a massive sheet of water, dotted by water lilies, during the rainy season from December to March and water birds abound, creating a spectacle of great beauty.

Baines Baobabs can be reached by a turnoff from the main Nxai Pan access road, 20 kilometres from the main Maun-Nata road and 17 kilometres from the entrance gate. Permits to enter and camp in the area are required.

Lepokole Hills

The Lepokole Hills north of Bobonong are the southernmost extension of the Matopos Hills in Zimbabwe, and are made up of the same immense granite blocks, often piled high into tall castles of fissured rock. The Hills lie 25 km north-east of Bobonong on a track passable by conventional vehicles.

It is in these hills that the last of the San people in eastern Botswana took refuge from the encroaching "civilization". Their presence here over the last 300 years is recorded in the paintings found in the caves and rocky overhangs of the kopjes. In addition to the Bushman rock paintings, the Lepokole Hills also contain a wealth of archaeological treasures, from Stone Age tools and ancient pottery to stone walls and mud granaries all left by long-forgotten people.

Visitors to the Lepokole Hills must be completely self-sufficient as only basic supplies can be obtained in Bobonong. From the village a rough four-wheel-drive track leads visitors for 15 km into the hills.

There are no public campsites or facilities in the hills and if one wants to camp in the area it is a courtesy to ask permission from the kgosi (chief) in Bobonong.

Tswapong Hills

Hemming in the Tuli Block to the north and east of Palapye are the Lepokole Hills, while in the west stands the Tswapong Hills. This is probably one of the least known areas of Botswana, yet it is less than 50km off the main Gaborone/Francistown road. The Tswapong Hills extend some 60km to the west and are about 15 to 20km wide, towering 300 to 400 metres above the surrounding plain.

These hills were formed over a thousand million years ago in both wet and dry conditions. They consist of compressed horizontal layers of sandstone, ironstone, a conglomerate of rounded water-worn pebbles in a hard matrix, and quartzite, giving them their distinctive colour. A capping of hard and resistance rock has protected the hills from erosion. The hills are typically flat topped and in many places sheer-sided with striking vertical cliffs.

It is, however, the water, which is Tswapong's unique attraction. Tswapong receives higher rainfall than the surrounding region and appears to have its own microclimate which impacts directly on all aspects of this unique land of mist and rivers. In this thirsty country, deep gorges have been carved into the hills giving rise to seasonal rivers, fed by natural springs where absorbed rain flows out of the porous rock. In places, these springs give rise to streams forming waterfalls with deep moss-edged pools.

Several waterfalls can be found near the village of Moremi, while a large colony of Cape vultures is established in the cliffs near the village of Gootau. Before visiting either of these sites, be sure to ask permission from the village chiefs.

Wildlife was once prolific, but man's intrusion has left only isolated pockets of antelope and smaller animals. A large colony of Cape vultures nests on the cliffs near the village of Gootau. With the abundant water in these scenic hills comes a diversity of flora and fauna and almost half of Botswana's 250 butterfly species can be found here. Butterflies are particularly plentiful near Moeng College, Botswana's first secondary school. There are 345 bird species in the hills and probably more still to be identified and recorded.

Some of the earliest traces of Bantu-speaking people in southern Africa have been found in the characteristic long and winding gorges at Tswapong. Many of these gorges are littered with fragments of beautifully made and decorated pottery from almost two millennia of man's occupation. There are hundreds of collapsed and buried iron smelters and other evidence that the art of iron smelting was practiced in these gorges from as early as 350 A.D. Carbon dates extend from approximately 350 A.D. to modern times indicating the long continuity of human occupation in the area.

As community involvement in tourism gains ground in Botswana through an increasing appreciation of its economic potential, the Tswapong area is likely to see numerous local initiatives and developments taking place, and already some of the villages are setting aside areas for visitors and overnight campers.

History of Botswana and General Info on Botswana

Culture and History

The history of Botswana is characterised by migrations of peoples into the country from the north and west and particularly from the east and south, as well as internal movements of groups of people. The group which eventually emerged as most numerous, and dominant, were the Batswana. Their pattern of dividing and migrating saw the formation of numerous Tswana tribes, and their eventual occupation of all areas of the country.

The term "Batswana" refers to the ethnic group of people who speak the Setswana language and share the Sotho-Tswana culture, while in its common contemporary usage, it refers to all citizens of the Republic of Botswana, regardless of their ethnic background. The singular is "Motswana": a citizen of the country. "Tswana" is used as an adjective - for example "Tswana state" or "Tswana culture".

First inhabitants

The earliest modern inhabitants of southern Africa were the Bushman (San) and the Hottentot (Khoe) peoples. They have lived an almost unchanged lifestyle in the country since the Middle Stone Age.

The physical characteristics of the Khoe and the San are similar. Both tend to have light, almost coppery skin colour, slanted, almond-shaped eyes, high cheekbones, thin lips and tufted, tightly curled hair. Both speak click languages, though there are major differences between them. Both hunted and collected wild foods and neither grew crops.

Approximately 60,000 years ago, the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa were of one tribe, probably of Khoe/San type. It is believed that the Bantu-speaking people were an offshoot from the Khoe/San tribe. This occurred in the tropical rain forests of equatorial Africa about 10,000 years ago. The Bantu-speaking people gradually developed darker skin pigmentation and different physical attributes because of the different environments they eventually occupied.

The origins of the Tswana tribes

In Botswana, about 1,000 years ago, large chiefdoms began to emerge in the area between Sowa Pan and the Tswapong Hills. Large settlements developed on hilltops. These people are known as the "Toutswe", after the first of their capitals, which was excavated on Toutswemogala Hill. Soon these communities were eclipsed by the Great Zimbabwe Empire, which spread its domain over much of eastern Botswana.

Around 1300 AD, peoples in present-day Transvaal began to coalesce into the linguistic and political groups they form today. This resulted in the emergence of three main groups: the Bakgalagadi, the Batswana and the Basotho, each of which had smaller divisions. Each group lived in small, loosely knit communities, spread widely over large areas of land. They spoke dialects of the same language and shared many cultural affinities.

Two central features of the history of the Batswana are fission and fusion. Groups of people broke off from their parent tribe and moved to new land, creating a new tribe and absorbing or subjugating the people they found there. This is how a single group of Batswana living in the Magaliesberg Mountains in northern Transvaal evolved into the numerous Tswana tribes, which exist today.

In 18th century further movements and split-ups of the Batswana resulted in the Tswana tribes which exist today: Bakhurutshe, Bangwato, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bakgatla, Batlhokwa, Barolong, Batlhaping and, much later, the Batawana.

The earlier farming inhabitants of Botswana - the Bakgalagadi - also split into several groups, namely the Bakgwateng, Babolaongwe, Bangologa, Baphaleng, Bashaga and many smaller groups. This then was how the Tswana tribes came to be living in Botswana as they were until about 200 years ago.

The Difaqane wars

The Difaqane wars were a devastating wave of tribal wars that swept across Botswana and much of southern Africa in the early 1800s.

By the early 19th century, populations in southern Africa had expanded to such a point that most fertile land was occupied. During the 1700s, the slave and ivory trades increased rapidly in southeastern Africa - minor kings were attacking their neighbours and selling their captives to slave traders. Along the Orange River, white bandits began to terrorize people living in the east.

Nguni peoples (Bantu-speaking peoples including the Zulus and Xhosas) began to form themselves into stronger units to resist these pressures. In 1816 King Shaka seized control of the Zulu chiefdom, and, by forcefully incorporating other smaller tribes, rapidly formed a powerful, war-like nation. Conquered peoples, began to move northwestwards in vast numbers (80,000 - 100,000) destroying everything in their path.

Towards the end of the Difaqane wars, tribes slowly began to re-establish themselves. The chiefs, in their efforts to reconstruct, began to exchange ivory and skins for guns with European, Griqua and Rolong traders, who began to infiltrate the African interior at that time.

Missionaries and traders

In the 19th century numerous missionary societies were formed in Europe and America to send out proselytizers around the world. The London Missionary Society was one of the first to preach amongst the Batswana. It set up a mission station at Kuruman (near present-day Vryburg in South Africa) in 1816. The untiring Robert Moffat headed the station for 50 years.

The famous Dr. David Livingstone arrived in 1841, worked out of Kuruman for about two years, and then married Moffat's daughter, Mary. Though much more interested in exploration than missionary work, and later much more involved in the abolition of the slave trade, Livingstone set up a mission station at Kolobeng amongst the Bakwena.

From Kuruman, Christianity very gradually spread to the interior. Missionaries settled amongst the people, often at the invitation of the chiefs who wanted guns and knew that the presence of missionaries encouraged the traders. By 1880 every major village of every tribe in Botswana had a resident missionary and their influence had become a permanent feature of life.

The missionaries worked through the chief, recognizing that the chief's conversion was the key to the rest of the tribe. Chiefs' responses varied - from Khama's (of the Bangwato) wholehearted embrace of the faith, to Sekgoma Letsholathebe's (of the Batawana) outright rejection, which he claimed was in defence of his culture.